what race were sumerians

[105] The trade credit was usually extended by temples in order to finance trade expeditions and was nominated in silver. The development into a (Sumerian) state in Babylonia seems to have been more gradual than in Egypt and likely concluded slightly earlier as well: 3200 BC in Mesopotamia while 3000 BC in Egypt, but the absolute dating of the archaeological material used to establish these things has such a margin of error that it is not , The only reference to Sumer in the Bible is to `the Land of Shinar (Genesis 10:10 and elsewhere), which people interpreted to most likely mean the land surrounding Babylon, until the Assyriologist Jules Oppert (1825-1905 CE) identified the biblical reference with the region of southern Mesopotamia known as Sumer and, . Sumerian structures were made of plano-convex mudbrick, not fixed with mortar or cement. Sumerians believed in anthropomorphic Several centuries after the invention of cuneiform, the use of writing expanded beyond debt/payment certificates and inventory lists to be applied for the first time, about 2600 BC, to messages and mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records, and other pursuits. Some female slaves were used as concubines by the master. [citation needed]. [92] Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in the Sumerian tombs of Ur, the Royal Cemetery at Ur, dating to 26002450. 77 The mortals were indeed the Sumerians, a non-Semitic racial type that conquered southern Babylonia, and the deities were Semitic, taken over by the newly arrived Sumerians from the indigenous Semites. Sumerian temples and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques, such as buttresses, recesses, half columns, and clay nails. The Sumerians were Black Rawlinson was convinced that there was a relationship between the Sumerians and Africans. As a result he used two African languages: one Semitic and the other Cushitic to decipher the cuneiform writing. Rawlinson was sure that the ancient Nubians and Puntites founded Mesopotamian civilization.(1) [68], Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC,[69] but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Babylonia and Assyria until the 1st century AD. pp. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. 'country' + 'lords' + 'noble') as seen in their inscriptions. The beginning of the tablet is lost, but the surviving portion begins by recounting how the gods An, Enlil, Enki, and Ninhursanga created the Sumerians and comfortable conditions for the animals to live and procreate. [60], The Sumerians generally seem to have discouraged premarital sex. [48] Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. What is the origin of human beings according to Sumerian texts? Read More, The Sumerian language is unrelated to any other language past or present. The Sumerians engaged in siege warfare between their cities, but the mudbrick walls were able to deter some foes. [citation needed], Marriages were usually arranged by the parents of the bride and groom;[59]:78 engagements were usually completed through the approval of contracts recorded on clay tablets. The origins of human beings according to ancient Sumerian texts. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of serving them. Naked priest offering libations to a Sumerian temple (detail), "The area in question (the extreme south of Mesopotamia) may now be called Sumer, and its inhabitants Sumerians, although these names are only English approximations of the Akkadian designations; the Sumerians themselves called their land Kengir, their language Emegir, and themselves Sag-giga, "black-headed ones." How did the Sumerians know about human DNA over 5000 years ago? Next they made oxen stomp the ground and kill weeds. Genders, man and woman wear straight skirts and shawls in Babylon. The credit for this must go to the Reverend Edward Hincks (1792-1866). Cereals were plentiful and were the key ingredient in their early brew. By around 2100 BCE Sumerian was dying as a spoken language but because it was associated with ancient royal and religious authority and learning, it was adopted by the Third Dynasty of Ur for the administration of their extensive Mesopotamian kingdom. Beneath the lu-gal ("great man" or king), all members of society belonged to one of two basic strata: The "lu" or free person, and the slave (male, arad; female geme). At an early stage, following the dawn of recorded history, Nippur, in central Mesopotamia, replaced Eridu in the south as the primary temple city, whose priests exercised political hegemony on the other city-states. The dead were buried outside the city walls in graveyards where a small mound covered the corpse, along with offerings to monsters and a small amount of food. The system crossed village boundaries, so the Sumerians had to cooperate with one another. The Sumerians adopted an agricultural lifestyle perhaps as early as c. 50004500 BC. [28], Some scholars contest the idea of a Proto-Euphratean language or one substrate language; they think the Sumerian language may originally have been that of the hunting and fishing peoples who lived in the marshland and the Eastern Arabia littoral region and were part of the Arabian bifacial culture. Uruk, one of Sumer's largest cities, has been estimated to have had a population of 50,00080,000 at its height;[53] given the other cities in Sumer, and the large agricultural population, a rough estimate for Sumer's population might be 0.8 million to 1.5 million. The Sumerian military used carts harnessed to onagers. What did slaves in Mesopotamia wear? At a basic level, the Sumerians can be defined by their language, which is recognisable in cuneiform texts dating from around 2800 BCE to the early centuries CE. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. The dynasty of Lagash (c. 25002270 BC), though omitted from the king list, is well attested through several important monuments and many archaeological finds. Sumer was conquered by the Semitic-speaking kings of the Akkadian Empire around 2270 BC (short chronology), but Sumerian continued as a sacred language. According to the ancient texts, each Sumerian city was guarded by its own god; and while humans and gods used to live together, the humans were servants to the gods. [6][7][8] The Sumerians referred to their land as Kengir, the 'Country of the noble lords' (, k-en-gi(-r), lit. Many transactions involved debt, for example goods consigned to merchants by temple and beer advanced by "ale women". The story relates the fictional adventures of Gilgamesh and his companion, Enkidu. The term therefore came to include Arabs, Akkadians, Canaanites, Hebrews, some Ethiopians (including the Amhara and the Tigrayans ), and Aramaean tribes. Thus, in the later Akkadian Enuma Elish, creation was seen as the union of fresh and salt water, between male Abzu, and female Tiamat. After around 2000 B.C., ancient Sumerian gradually died off as a spoken language in the region. Plants were also grown in pots or vases. Cuneiform characters were imprinted on a wet clay tablet with a stylus often made of reed (reed pen). Most historians have suggested that Sumer was first permanently settled between c. 5500 and 4000 BC by a West Asianpeople who The potters used a bow drill to produce the fire needed for baking the pottery. He was the last ethnically Sumerian king before Sargon of Akkad.[35]. The interest rate was set at 1/60 a month (one shekel per mina) some time before 2000 BC and it remained at that level for about two thousand years. As for the Atlantic slave trade, this began in 1444 A.D., when Portuguese traders brought the first large number of slaves from Africa to Europe. Pictorial Narrative in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The Akkadians lived in northern Mesopotamia while the Sumerians lived in the south. The Sumerians can seem very familiar. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide areafrom the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as western Iran. [109][unreliable source] They were also aware of the five planets that are easily visible to the naked eye.[110]. In this way the Sumerians were appreciated and valued in new ways, especially through museum displays in London, Philadelphia and Chicago where a substantial number of the excavated objects had been sent as a result of the division of finds. These early chariots functioned less effectively in combat than did later designs, and some have suggested that these chariots served primarily as transports, though the crew carried battle-axes and lances. The Sumerians' cuneiform script is the oldest (or second oldest after the Egyptian hieroglyphs) which has been deciphered (the status of even older inscriptions such as the Jiahu symbols and Tartaria tablets is controversial). This constant rebuilding gradually raised the level of cities, which thus came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The obligations, loans and prices in general were usually denominated in one of them. "Sumeria" redirects here. The original pyramidal structure, the "Anu Ziggurat" dates to around 4000 BC, and the White Temple was built on top of it c. 3500 BC. For example, Imports to Ur came from many parts of the world. The two beads etched with patterns in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley. [33] Reliable historical records begin much later; there are none in Sumer of any kind that have been dated before Enmebaragesi (Early Dynastic I). Other ancient people made pottery by hand, but the Sumerians were the first to develop the turning wheel, a device which allowed them to mass-produce it, according to Reed Goodman, a doctoral candidate in the art and archaeology of the Mediterranean at the University of Pennsylvania. Daggers with metal blades and wooden handles were worn, and copper was hammered into plates, while necklaces or collars were made of gold. Home | About | Contact | Copyright | Privacy | Cookie Policy | Terms & Conditions | Sitemap. It is possible that the majority of people living here had spoken Sumerian but it may have become an increasingly bi-lingual world in which people moved between Sumerian and Akkadian according to social and religious demands and expectations. Print. [85] The period c. 27002300 BC saw the first appearance of the abacus, and a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal number system. This led them to live in larger communitiesthe first cities. Sumerian cylinder seals also depict houses built from reeds not unlike those built by the Marsh Arabs of Southern Iraq until as recently as 400 CE. [citation needed], In the early Sumerian period, the primitive pictograms suggest[56] that, There is considerable evidence concerning Sumerian music. Sumerian masons and jewelers knew and made use of alabaster (calcite), ivory, iron, gold, silver, carnelian, and lapis lazuli. 77 The mortals were indeed the Sumerians, a non-Semitic racial type that conquered southern Babylonia, and the deities were Semitic, taken over by the newly arrived Sumerians from the indigenous Semites. While it can be read, making sense of things requires understanding how Sumerians used metaphors. 2001. Later, the Third Dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi (c. 21122004 BC, middle chronology), whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, has been erroneously called a "Sumerian renaissance" in the past. They were the first to find the area of a triangle and the volume of a cube.[87]. This pattern continued to influence regional Mesopotamian myths. They drained the marshes for agriculture, developed trade, and established industries, including weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, masonry, and pottery. WebWhat race were the ancient Sumerians? The last of these eventually came to briefly dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done in the north from the late 21st century BC. The ancient name of this language was controversial until 1889 when a bilingual cuneiform text noted that the term emegi was equivalent to Akkadian lian umeri the Sumerian language. By 3000 B.C.E., most Sumerians lived in walled city-states. [citation needed], Sumerian potters decorated pots with cedar oil paints. But is this picture correct? and became expansive and sang with joy!"[80]. Those who could afford it sought burial at Dilmun. Sumerian mythology claims that, in the beginning, human-like gods ruled over Earth. The son of a lu was called a dumu-nita until he married. Bottro, Jean, Andr Finet, Bertrand Lafont, and George Roux. Twenty-fourth Dynasty of EgyptTefnakht Bakenranef, (Sargonid dynasty)Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II, Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes. What was the race of Sumerians? The center of Sumerian culture remained in southern Mesopotamia, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas, and neighboring Semitic groups adopted much of Sumerian culture for their own. [86] The Sumerians were the first to use a place value numeral system. They may have invented military formations and introduced the basic divisions between infantry, cavalry, and archers. There is also anecdotal evidence the Sumerians may have used a type of slide rule in astronomical calculations. The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. [105], Commercial credit and agricultural consumer loans were the main types of loans. By unpacking this more recent history, it is possible to consider what we think we know about the Sumerians and how we know it. The inscriptions of King Shulgi, who likely spoke Akkadian, describe him as being of Sumerian seed, but perhaps only in the sense that he originated from southern Mesopotamia and had mastered the dead language. The products of that union, Lahm and Lahmu, "the muddy ones", were titles given to the gate keepers of the E-Abzu temple of Enki in Eridu, the first Sumerian city. In particular, cedar from Lebanon was prized. [14] The Akkadians also called the Sumerians 'black-headed people', or almat-qaqqadi, in the Semitic Akkadian language. In the early Sumerian Uruk period, the primitive pictograms suggest that sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs were domesticated. A problem was therefore created around determining the supposed original homeland of the Sumerians and the exact point in time at which they had arrived in Mesopotamia. Left: Sculpture of the head of Sumerian ruler. They then dragged the fields with pickaxes. Sumerian artifacts show great detail and ornamentation, with fine semi-precious stones imported from other lands, such as lapis lazuli, marble, and diorite, and precious metals like hammered gold, incorporated into the design. The adventure-filled tale centers on a Sumerian king named Gilgamesh who is . They have been discovered by Leonard Woolley when the Royal Cemetery of Ur has been excavated between from 1922 and 1934. The first set of names on the list is of kings said to have reigned before a major flood occurred. The Sumerian afterlife involved a descent into a gloomy netherworld to spend eternity in a wretched existence as a Gidim (ghost).[75]. Register today for FREE to become a Friend of ASOR so that you can join our team and receive exclusive benefits (The Ancient Near East Today and Online Resources). Slave women worked as weavers, pressers, millers, and porters. The credit for this must go to the Reverend Edward Hincks (1792-1866). [91] Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly Turbinella pyrum and Pleuroploca trapezium, have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia dating from around 25002000 BC. Not only was Mesopotamia one of the first places to develop agriculture, it was also at the crossroads of the Egyptian and the Indus Valley civilizations. All knowledge of their history, language and technologyeven their namewas eventually forgotten. These deities formed the main pantheon, and in addition to this there were hundreds of other minor gods. They were Hamitic (Africans). The first known ones were made by Enmetena and Urukagina of Lagash in 24002350 BC. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. Sumerian continued to be the language of religion and law in Mesopotamia long after Semitic speakers had become dominant. Servants, slaves, and soldiers wore short skirts, while royalty and deities wore long skirts. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. They were thought to be the offspring of the goddess Nammu and were originally united as one. [98][99][100][101][102][103], Gudea, the ruler of the Neo-Summerian Empire at Lagash, is recorded as having imported "translucent carnelian" from Meluhha, generally thought to be the Indus Valley area. [50] Already, however, the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the resurgence of the Akkadian-speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites), who were to found several competing local powers in the south, including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and later, Babylonia. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double. Another important Sumerian hieros gamos was that between Ki, here known as Ninhursag or "Lady of the Mountains", and Enki of Eridu, the god of fresh water which brought forth greenery and pasture. Yet these texts had been written at a time when mothers were no longer talking to their children in Sumerian. The only reference to Sumer in the Bible is to `the Land of Shinar (Genesis 10:10 and elsewhere), which people interpreted to most likely mean the land surrounding Babylon, until the Assyriologist Jules Oppert (1825-1905 CE) identified the biblical reference with the region of southern Mesopotamia known as Sumer and. Some archaeologists have speculated that the original speakers of ancient Sumerian may have been farmers, who moved down from the north of Mesopotamia after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. Sumerians caught many fish and hunted fowl and gazelle.[83]. The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumer are a large number of clay tablets written in cuneiform script. Sumer (/sumr/) is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia (south-central Iraq), emerging during the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. Sumerian religion seems to have been founded upon two separate cosmogenic myths. Some authors have proposed that there may be evidence of a substratum or adstratum language for geographic features and various crafts and agricultural activities, called variously Proto-Euphratean or Proto Tigrean, but this is disputed by others. Winter, Irene J. Although the idea of the Sumerians as a distinct people was initially challenged (in a very acrimonious scholarly debate informed by anti-Semitic prejudice), a historical framework was established in which they were thought to have arrived from outside Mesopotamia, introducing civilization to the region. The Tigris-Euphrates plain lacked minerals and trees. WebWho were the ancestors of the Sumerians? Mud-brick buildings eventually deteriorate, so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. The Sumerians called themselves the black headed people and their land, in cuneiform script, was simply the land or the land of the black headed peopleand, in the biblical Book of Genesis, Sumer is known as Shinar. Affinities exist between Nubia ware and pottery from Ennedi and Tibesti. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (Early Dynastic I), whose name is also mentioned in the Epic of Gilgameshleading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. [96][97], Several Indus seals with Harappan script have also been found in Mesopotamia, particularly in Ur, Babylon and Kish. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. Uruk period, c. 3200 BC. The Nodites, a race that started about 200,000 years ago, had black hair. Konfirst wanted to see if a drought that spanned about 200 years may have caused the decline. WebBy about 2000 BCE, the Sumerians were speaking Akkadian and the Sumerian and Akkadian civilizations were regarded as a single people; there is no evidence in any Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. This made it a melting pot of languages and cultures that stimulated a lasting impact on writing, technology, language, trade, religion, and law. Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians lived along the coast of Eastern Arabia, today's Persian Gulf region, before it was flooded at the end of the Ice Age. [64][63][60], Prostitution existed but it is not clear if sacred prostitution did. Sumerian princess of the time of Gudea c. 2150 BC. It was in these cities that the earliest known form of writing, cuneiform script, appeared around 3000 BCE. Genetics will not solve the puzzle, but it may help in elucidating relationships. The origins of the Sumerians are murky, but many scholars have suggested that they may have arrived from the south (the oldest city, Eridu, is in the south). Others have suggested that the Sumerians descended from the mountains of the northeast. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. What was the Sumerian religion based upon? They used oxen as their primary beasts of burden and donkeys or equids as their primary transport animal and "woollen clothing as well as rugs were made from the wool or hair of the animals. Triangular or wedge-shaped reeds were used to write on moist clay. A large body of hundreds of thousands of texts in the Sumerian language have survived, including personal and business letters, receipts, lexical lists, laws, hymns, prayers, stories, and daily records. [2][3], The Akkadian word umer may represent the geographical name in dialect, but the phonological development leading to the Akkadian term umer is uncertain. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. "[56], The Sumerians were one of the first known beer-drinking societies. World's most ancient race traced in DNA study. The San people of southern Africa, who have lived as hunter-gatherers for thousands of years, are likely to be the oldest population of humans on Not a Friend of ASOR yet? [106] They were denominated in barley or other crops and the interest rate was typically much higher than for commercial loans and could amount to 1/3 to 1/2 of the loan principal. Standing Male Worshipper, 2900 BCE, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. Large-scale excavations led by British and American archaeologists were made possible by the colonial administration and discoveries at sites like Ur and in the region of the Diyala River were fundamental in shaping how the Sumerians were imagined. [88], Evidence for imports from the Indus to Ur can be found from around 2350 BC. The Sumerians were among the first astronomers, mapping the stars into sets of constellations, many of which survived in the zodiac and were also recognized by the ancient Greeks. The five "first" cities, said to have exercised pre-dynastic kingship "before the flood": (2an outlying city in northern Mesopotamia). The ancient Sumerian king list includes the early dynasties of several prominent cities from this period. [63] The Sumerians did not regard anal sex as taboo either. The cart was composed of a woven basket and the wheels had a solid three-piece design. They were made by a technique developed by the Harappan civilization", For a full list of discoveries of Indus seals in Mesopotamia, see. The text usually referred to as the Sumerian King List (SKL) is a composition somewhere between a literary text and a list proper, which deals with the history of kingship in Babylonia from the beginning of time to the early centuries of the second millennium BCE. This page was last edited on 28 February 2023, at 06:54. He drank the beer-seven jugs! When they came to the Earth, there was much work to be done and these gods toiled the soil, digging to make it habitable and mining its minerals. in, Jacobsen, Thorkild (Ed) (1939),"The Sumerian King List" (Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago; Assyriological Studies, No. Some slaves worked in the fields, but this was pretty uncommon since the wealthy were generally not involved in farming. [15], Most historians have suggested that Sumer was first permanently settled between c. 5500 and 4000 BC by a West Asian people who spoke the Sumerian language (pointing to the names of cities, rivers, basic occupations, etc., as evidence), a non-Semitic and non-Indo-European agglutinative language isolate. WebIt demonstrates that Sumerian was genetically related to the Niger-Congo languages of West Africa. Although completely discredited today, such racial science grouped people (both in the past as well as the contemporary world) into types based on their language, religion, technological abilities and physical appearance, so as to situate them on a sliding scale from primitive to civilized. Lapis lazuli probably originated in northern Afghanistan, as no other sources are known, and had to be transported across the Iranian plateau to Mesopotamia, and then Egypt. By the Ur III period, farmers had switched from wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley as their principal crop. The independent Amorite states of the 20th to 18th centuries are summarized as the "Dynasty of Isin" in the Sumerian king list, ending with the rise of Babylonia under Hammurabi c. 1800 BC. It is one of the cradles of civilization in the world, along with ancient Egypt, Elam, the Caral-Supe civilization, Mesoamerica, the Indus Valley civilisation, and ancient China. ", "Tablets were used for writing purposes. [15] Hebrew .mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"SBL Hebrew","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Taamey Frank CLM","Frank Ruehl CLM","Ezra SIL","Ezra SIL SR","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans} inar, Egyptian Sngr, and Hittite anhar(a), all referring to southern Mesopotamia, could be western variants of Sumer. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. Credited with the invention of nothing less than cities, writing and the wheel, they hold an ancient mirror to our own urban, literate world. Most difficult are the earliest texts, which in many cases do not give the full grammatical structure of the language and seem to have been used as an "aide-mmoire" for knowledgeable scribes. Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians may have been the people living in the Persian Gulf region before it flooded at the end of the last Ice Age. Standing Male Worshipper. The Sumerians came from the Sahara before it became a desert. General location on a modern map, and main cities of Sumer with ancient coastline. Ziggurats (Sumerian temples) each had an individual name and consisted of a forecourt, with a central pond for purification. As early as 1849 Hincks had also concluded that the language of the inventors of cuneiform was not in fact Akkadian and that the system of writing derived from a people who spoke a non-Semitic language. Sumerians believed in an anthropomorphic polytheism, or the belief in many gods in human form. It tells of a king from the early Dynastic II period named Gilgamesh or "Bilgamesh" in Sumerian. 1. [22][23] Alternatively, a recent (2013) genetic analysis of four ancient Mesopotamian skeletal DNA samples suggests an association of the Sumerians with Indus Valley Civilization, possibly as a result of ancient Indus-Mesopotamia relations. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the Ur III period that followed it. what does a lioness symbolize spiritually, national school appreciation days 2022, idoceo equivalent for windows,